Subject: Diaspora: The Ashkenazi Jews in Poland - Part 6
Reply-to: heb_roots_chr@geocities.com
From: JUICE Administration <juice@virtual.co.il>
To: diaspora@virtual.co.il
Subject: JUICE Diaspora 6
==============================================================
World Zionist Organization
Student and Academics Department
Jewish University in CyberspacE
juice@wzo.org.il birnbaum@wzo.org.il
http://www.wzo.org.il
==============================================================
Course: Actors on the World's Stage: Jewish Life in the Diaspora
Lecture: 6/12
Lecturer: Rabbi Zvi Berger
Shalom folks, and welcome back to our journey through the lands of the
Diaspora! Today we'll continue the story of Ashkenazic Jewry, though the
geographic focus moves eastward to Poland. The saga of Eastern European
Jewry may be particularly significant for those of us who remember hearing
the stories of grandparents (or great-grandparents) who grew up in the
shtetls (small Jewish villages) of Eastern Europe. Perhaps some of you also
lived in Eastern Europe or still live there today. At any rate, today's
lecture will deal with this influential Jewish community through the early
1800's, and the 19th and 20th Century developments will be dealt with in
Lecture #8.
The settlement of Jews in Eastern Europe goes back to ancient times.
Numerous Jewish communities existed, and Judaism received an obvious boost
in status when Bulan, the ruling prince of the Khazars converted to Judaism.
The Khazars were a people primarily Mongolian in origin, who ruled the area
roughly corresponding to the Ukraine. After Bulan's conversion, Jewish
observance became widespread, particularly among the ruling classes, to the
point where the entire realm was known as a Jewish kingdom. Jewish life
flourished until the Khazars fell in 969 to the armies of the Duke of Kiev.
It seems likely that Judaism continued to be observed by many after the fall
of the kingdom, though most scholars view the primary source of Polish Jewry
to be the later Ashkenazic migrations from Central Europe. (For a
dissenting view, see Arthur Koestler's controversial work, The Thirteenth
Tribe).
Though our sources are quite limited, there is evidence of a continued
Jewish presence in Eastern Europe in the 12th and early 13th Centuries.
Jews were employed as merchants, traders, and tax collectors. Some Jews
even worked as royal mint masters. Coins have been found from this period
with the names of Polish princes in Hebrew lettering! Many Jews came to
Poland in order to escape the persecutions during the Crusades. The scope
of the emigration increased dramatically after the Tartar invasions of
Eastern Europe in 1240-41. These invasions left destruction and economic
ruin in their wake. In Poland the middle class was virtually obliterated.
As a result, the Polish rulers undertook a conscious policy of inviting
merchants and craftsmen from Germany, including large numbers of Jews. One
of these rulers, Boleslav the Pious, issued a charter which guaranteed Jews
security and freedom of opportunity. These favorable conditions were
reaffirmed by later monarchs, and under the enlightened rule of Casimir the
Great (1333-70), the status of the Jews reached its highest point. In later
centuries occasional anti-Jewish measures were passed, often at the urging
of virulently anti-Jewish churchmen, such as the Franciscan monk John of
Capistrano, a popular preacher from Italy who fought against the Hussite
heresy in Central Europe and preached with equal fervor against the Jews.
In Poland his sermons often led to anti-Jewish riots among the populace,
many of whom were Christian immigrants from Germany. Economic hostility
against the Jews was also evident, particularly among the Christian German
merchants. Despite these underlying tensions, Jewish life continued to
develop in Poland, and in the 16th Century Jewish immigration to the Polish
dominions increased dramatically. Poland became a great center of Jewish
learning, with prominent yeshivot in all major cities and towns.
By the middle of the 17th Century, the economic and social position of
Polish Jewry seemed firmly established. Jews were heavily represented at
the great fairs in which Polish commerce was centered. Of particular
importance for the increasingly powerful Polish nobility was the role played
by economically astute Jews, who often served the nobles as personal
advisors and as stewards of their estates. The economic stability was
accompanied by significant political and communal developments. Already in
1551, King Sigismund Augustus had granted the Jews the right to elect their
Chief Rabbi and judges, who were given the power to administer justice
within the Jewish community in all matters according to the principles of
Halakha. In the 17th Century, the Council of the Four Lands (Great Poland,
Little Poland, Podolia, and Volhynia) was established by Jewish communal
leaders to serve as a type of "Parliament" and "Supreme Court" of Polish
Jewry. More importantly for the heads of the Polish states, the council
serves as an effective instrument for tax collection within the Jewish
communities. By the 1640's, Jewish life in Poland was thriving, cemented as
it was on the mutually beneficial alliance between the Jews and the Polish
ruling classes. And so it comes as no surprise that Poland was described in
very favorable terms in Jewish literature from the period. The very
rendering of Poland in Hebrew ("Polin" or "Polanya") was understood as a
hint of the special character of Jewish life there, since "Po Lan Yah" is
Hebrew for "Here rests God"! But as we have seen, a significant level of
popular animosity towards the Jews was ever-present, and in the year 1648
this hostility was dramatically heightened as a result of a nationalist
rebellion. Polish Jewry was to suffer a horrible, horrible blow!
The rebellion took place in the Ukraine, where the Cossacks, a sturdy and
warlike band of peasants and horsemen, led a nationalist revolt against the
Polish rulers. The Poles and the Ukrainians did not share a common language
and culture, and while both were Christian, the Catholicism of the Poles
clashed with the Eastern Orthodoxy of the Ukrainians. (Clearly, the
hostilities that we've seen in our own time in Bosnia and in other parts of
Eastern Europe in recent years are by no means the first examples of
nationalistic tension and hostility in this region...). At any rate, the
leader of the rebellion of 1648-49, (known as the Cossack Revolt), was
Bogdan Chmielnitzki, a man who is still viewed by many as a Ukrainian
nationalist folk hero to this day. Chmielnitzki and his Cossack horsemen
particularly resented the Jews, who were viewed as the despicable allies of
Polish political tyranny and economic oppression. Entire Jewish communities
were brutally massacred by the Cossack hordes. An eyewitness to the
massacres, Rabbi Nathan Hanover, describes the horrors...
"The Cossacks rioted against the Jews with a terrible cruelty...Some of
them had their skins flayed off them and their flesh was flung to the dogs.
The hands and feet of others were cut off and they were flung into the
roadway where carts ran over them and they were trodden underfoot by
horses...and many were buried alive. Children were slaughtered in their
mothers' bosoms and many children were torn apart like fish... and there was
never an unnatural death in the world that they did not inflict upon
them..." (N. Hanover, Yeven Metzulah, Tel Aviv, 1966, pp.31-2)
I realize this is a gruesome portrayal which may be quite difficult to read.
But I think that it's important to read, in order to get a sense of the
horror of those days. Clearly, the Cossacks were acting out of a deep sense
of hatred, and there can be little doubt that the massacres were a
tremendous physical blow for Polish Jewry. Hundreds of thousands of Jews
perished at the hands of these Cossack bands, and no less than seven hundred
kehillot (communities) were destroyed! In this period of despair many
difficult questions must certainly have been raised. How would it be
possible to rebuild, to restore some level of communal stability? On a
theological level, how was it possible that God could have allowed His
people to suffer such cruelties? Searching for answers and attempting to
fathom the mysteries of their fate, some Jews turned to the secrets of the
Kabbalah. This inward search for mystical enlightenment was certainly not
unprecedented. The 16th Century had witnessed a rebirth of interest in
Kabbalah, which was centered in Eretz Yisrael in the Galilee town of Tzfat.
These mystics, led by Rabbi Isaac Luria (the Ari), developed a school of
Kabbalistic thinking which was particularly concerned with the coming of the
Messiah. By living a rigorous and difficult life of asceticism, these
mystics hoped to literally bring the Messiah to earth and save the Jewish
people. It was surely no coincidence that the deeply Messianic concerns of
Lurianic Kabbalah developed after the cataclysmic blow of the Spanish
Inquisition and the expulsion from Spain. And so now, after the terrible
massacres of 1648-59, it should not surprise us that Messianism reemerges as
a tremendously influential force in the Jewish world. But there was
something special about the post-1648 developments. This time, the Messiah
really came!! Or at least that's what approximately 50% of the Jews all
over the world believed... His name was Shabbetai Zvi, and his effect on
the Jewish world was devastating!
In the year 1665, Shabbetai Zvi, a Sephardic Jew from Smyrna in Asia Minor,
proclaimed his Messiahship in Jerusalem. With the aid of his chief
disciple, a charismatic figure named Nathan of Gaza (who claimed to be a
prophet), the Mesianic movement spread like wildfire throughout the Jewish
world. Rumors of the miraculous powers of the "Messiah" abounded, and tens
of thousands of Jews quickly made preparations to abandon their homes in the
Diaspora, so that they could be miraculously transported "on the wings of
eagles" to Eretz Yisrael! Many closed their shops and applied themselves to
special fasts and other types of extreme purifications. Here is a
description of these bizarre events, taken from Sir Paul Rycaut's History of
the Turkish Empire, (which is a first hand account of the period):
"[Some Jews] buried themselves in their gardens, covering their naked
bodies with earth, their heads only excepted, remained in those beds of
dirt, until their bodies were stiffened with the cold and moisture. Others
would endure to have melted wax dropt upon their shoulders, others to roll
themselves in snow and throw their bodies in the coldest season of the
winter into the sea, or frozen waters...All business was laid aside, none
worked or opened shop, unless to clear his warehouse of merchandise at any
price..."
Well! A bit hard to believe, eh? I admit, it's hard to imagine people
doing things like this, but I guess it all testifies to the utter and
complete faith that these Jews had that the Messiah had in fact come, and
that extreme measures were necessary in order to purify themselves before
the great Redemption! I guess it also reflects how deeply Jews needed to be
redeemed during this difficult period. In a word, the "Messiah came",
because Jews so desperately wanted a Messiah to save them! And so, the
Jewish world was deeply divided in these days between the followers of
Shabbetai Zvi, and those who considered him to be an impostor. The Turkish
Sultan was quite concerned about the destabilizing effects of this Messianic
figure, and so he had Shabbetai Zvi arrested. At first, Shabbetai held
court in prison, Dividing the world up among his loyal followers, until he
was given the choice of converting to Islam or facing execution at the hands
of the royal archers. And so, Shabbetai Zvi converted to Islam, and the
Jewish world, still reeling from the horrible blow of the massacres of
1648-49, now faced a tremendous spiritual crisis. Actually, a small group
of followers continued to believe in Shabbetai Zvi's Messiahship even after
his conversion, claiming that he had to become a Muslim in order to redeem
the sparks of light from millions of Muslim souls. Most Jews, however,
reacted t the news with extreme disillusionment and despair. The Jews of
Poland were particularly hard hit, and Polish Jewry entered into a period of
decline that lasted for about 50 years. The scholars sought refuge in study
of Torah, but in the process became largely estranged from the common
people. But the latent energy of the Shabbatean movement did not vanish
entirely, and the yearnings for redemption soon found another outlet. But
now the focus was no longer upon national Messianic redemption, but rather
the liberation of the individual soul through joyous worship of God. It was
in this time that the Hasidic movement was born.
Israel ben Eliezer (1700-1760) was a Polish Jew who became known as a
popular preacher, healer, and miracle worker. He was known as the Baal Shem
Tov, (the "Master of the Good Name"), and around 1735, he began to spread
his teachings, (with the aid of his disciples, known as "hasidim", or "pious
ones"). According to the Baal Shem Tov, Torah study was not the only way to
engage in Divine service. Even more important than study was devout,
personal prayer, the "service of the heart", which was expressed top God
through joyful, even ecstatic song and dance. It was a simple message, one
which appealed deeply to the masses of common Jews. The movement grew, and
in the decades following the Besht's death, ("Besht" is an acronym for "Baal
Shem Tov"), numerous Hasidic "dynasties" were established, each with their
own spiritual master, known as a "tzaddik" ("righteous one") or "rebbe".
The Hasidic rebbes would often teach through use of stories or parables, and
as a result, over the centuries a rich literature has developed of Hasidic
stories. A number of collections of these stories exist in English, the
most famous of which is Martin Buber's excellent collection, Tales of the
Hasidim. Let's look at an example of a Hasidic story about the Baal Shem
Tov himself, (taken from Buber, Tales of the Hasidim: Early Masters, p. 73):
The Crowded House of Prayer
Once the Baal Shem stopped on the threshold of a House of Prayer and
refused to go in. "I cannot go in", he said,. "It is crowded with
teachings and prayers from wall to wall and from floor to ceiling. How
could there be room for me?" And when he saw that those around him were
staring at him and did not know what he meant, he added: "The words from
the lips of those whose teaching and praying does not come from the hearts
lifted to heaven, cannot rise, but fill the house from wall to wall and from
floor to ceiling."
In this tale, we see the importance of kavvanah, ("proper intention").
Teachings and prayers which are not sincere, which do not stem from the
heart, do not rise to heaven, and make true prayer impossible. Notice as
well the implicit criticism of the scholarly class which is expressed in the
story. Not just prayers, but also "teachings" are mentioned here.
The Hasidic movement became a major religious force in the Jewish world of
18th Century Poland. At the time, it clearly represented a revolutionary
trend in Jewish life, and like all revolutions, (including spiritual ones),
the movement inspired a good deal of vehement opposition from the
established spiritual leadership, particularly from the great Torah
scholars. These elements viewed the Hasidic movement as heretical and
dangerous, citing its deemphasis upon Torah study and its veneration of the
holy men (the "rebbes"). Ultimately, the opposition to the Hasidim formed a
counter-movement called the Mitnagdim (literally "opponents"), which were
led by the most brilliant Torah scholar of the 18th Century, Elijah, the
Gaon of Vilna. The attacks actualy reached the level of the pronouncement
of bans of herem (excommunication)! Listen to the extreme condemnation
expressed in this attack on the Hasidim, issued in 1786.
"Because of our many sins, worthless and wanton men who call themselves
Hasidim have deserted the Jewish group and have set up a so-called place of
worship for themselves...they worship in a most insane fashion following a
different ritual which does not conform to the religion of our holy Torah,
and they tread a path which our fathers have never trod...it is obvious to
us that all of their writings are opposed to our holy Torah and that they
contain misleading interpretations..."
The document goes on to call for the ending of the prayer meetings of the
Hasidim, it forbids the eating of meat slaughtered by Hasidic ritual
slaughterers, Hasidim are not allowed to file suit in a Jewish court, etc.
This document clearly testifies to the intensity of emotions engendered by
the struggle between the Hasidim and the Mitnagdim. This conflict, by the
way, gradually became less and less significant, largely because both of
these movements ultimately "joined forces" against a much more serious
"common enemy", namely, the forces of modernization and religious reform in
Jewish life.
I read an interesting article in last Friday's Jerusalem Post (Oct. 24
edition), by Amotz Asa-el entitled "The new 'gaons'", in which the columnist
talks about the brilliance of the Gaon of Vilna, but also speaks of the
hatred and intolerance that existed within Jewish life in his time. He
mentions that the newly independent state of Lithuania has chosen to
officially mark the 200th anniversary of the death of the Gaon of Vilna, and
he questions whether the Gaon's efforts were truly commendable, and whether
they should be viewed positively today. He sees the Gaon's persecution of
the Hasidim as being quite similar to the struggle being waged by Israeli
Orthodoxy today against the Conservative and Reform movements of Judaism!
Obviously, not everyone would agree with Asa-el's admittedly anti-Orthodox
perspective here, but it certainly represents an interesting attempt to
relate an important internal conflict from 18th C. Polish Jewish history, to
the contemporary Jewish world. Getting back to the struggle between Hasidim
and Mitnagdim, I should mention that one factor which helped to bridge the
gap between the two groups was the fact that the Hasidic movement gradually
returned more and more to the more traditional Jewish emphasis upon Torah
study. Today, the Hasidim and Mitnagdim still exist as separate groups, but
both fall within the general rubric of the haredim ("God-fearing", or
ultra-Orthodox Jews). Within the Hasidic movement today, there are numerous
schools of Hasidim, the largest and most well known being the Lubavitcher or
Habad Hasidim. The founder of Habad was Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, and
the latest rebbe of this group, (the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem
Mendel Schneersohn), who died about two years ago in Brooklyn, is believed
by some of his Hasidim to have actually been the Messiah himself! Other
well known Hasidic groups are the Braslavers, (followers of the great
spiritual master, Rabbi Nachman of Braslav), and the Satmars.
Well, I think that's about it for today. We're not done with the story of
Eastern European Jewry; in 3 more weeks we'll describe 19th and 20th Cent.
developments. But for next week, we're going to deal with something
completely different! We'll learn about the tremendous storehouse of Jewish
documents found in the Cairo Geniza, and we'll give a number of examples to
show how the finding of these documents has contributed to our understanding
of Jewish history in the Diaspora. I strongly recommend that you do a bit of
homework, and check out an excellent background article, published a number
of years ago in the Jerusalem Post. The article on "The Cairo Geniza" by
Abraham Rabinovich, can be found on the Web at this site:
http://www.jpost.com/com/Archive/22.Jan.1997/Features/Article-7.html
Also worth checking if you have the time is the site of the Taylor-
Schechter collection at the Cambridge University library, (where most of the
Geniza documents have been stored, catalogued, and analyzed). Check it out at:
http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/Taylor-Schechter/Collection.html
See you next week!
Rabbi Zvi Berger
******************************************************************************