Subject: JUICE Geography 12 - Jerusalem II
Date:    Thu, 11 Jun 1998 00:22:29 +0000
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From:          JUICE Administration <juice@wzo.org.il>
To:            geography@wzo.org.il
Subject:       JUICE Geography 12

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                  World Zionist Organization
                Jewish University In CyberspacE
           birnbaum@jer1.co.il      juice@jer1.co.il 
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Course: Biblical Geography
Lecture: 12/12
Lecturer: Eli Birnbaum

Jerusalem - From Beauty to Ashes to Rebirth 

 Welcome to the final Lecture in the series . I hope you have enjoyed it
as much as I enjoyed the research  and the teaching. Let us begin with
Herod, who had this love hate relationship with the Jewish people. As we
saw in the lecture on the Judean Desert, he felt a strong need to win the
approval of the people on one hand .  At the same time he ruthlessly
killed anyone he felt would weaken his position, including close
relatives, and  religious leaders. This can help explain his marrying
Miriam the last surviving Hasmonean and then murdering her in a jealous
rage. This need for popular approval can be felt in his massive building
campaign during most of his rule (37 - 4 BCE). It also cannot be denied is
that the country prospered, during his time.  Pilgrimages from all over
the world once again were made to Jerusalem.  His edifices were so
beautiful; that the Talmud ( Baba Batra 3b) states " He who has not seen
the rebuilt temple has not seen beauty in his life". There is one further
point to remember most of his buildings, as we shall see also served as
fortresses.
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/arch/atikot1.html

Herod is  most famous  for  the rebuilding of the temple and Jerusalem
itself that he began in 19 BCE after taking Jerusalem from Matatyahu
Antigonos the last Hasmonean ruler. He quickly put in priestly families
who would be loyal to him some historian's claim that Herod wanted to be
appointed high priest as well. Leaving the politics aside for a moment,
Herod's buildings mostly built in Roman style were nothing less then
amazing. Among his monumental buildings were the three towers near what is
today Jaffa gate, better known as  Migdal David (David's Tower) .
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/state/jermodel.html

  In this area he built 3 tower like structures and named them after the
three people who were closest to him Phasael (after Herod's brother);
Hippicus (a friend who fell in battle); and Mariamne's Tower (after his
lately murdered wife).  The towers ranged in height from, 90 feet for
Mariamne's, 106 feet for Phasael's, to Hippicus' 131 feet. Most of them
were rather luxurious with baths and elegant rooms. It is the bottom of
Phasael's tower, which can still be seen today.
 
Herod also built himself a palace to the south of the tower near where the
Armenian quarter is today, which included two blocks of buildings, called
Caesareum and Agrippeum in honor of Augustus and his general Vipsanius
Agrippa. Water ponds, fountains, fancy statues exquisite banquet halls
with mosaic-tiled floors and over 100 guestrooms. (Ant. 20:189-92).

The city itself was divided into two section the Upper and Lower city. The
Upper City, or western district, was the wealthy section. Although the
houses were built quite close to each other they were large and had
spacious open inner courtyards, baths tiled floors and frescos on the
walls mostly in the Hellenistic- Roman style. The people were the
aristocracy of Jerusalem and included the families of the high priest, the
Sadducees and wealth merchants. The poorer classes lived in the lower
city. To the right of the lower city, running down the ridge sits the
Ophel the original city of King David.

http://www.wzo.org.il/juice/map/jerusalm/2/index.html

 The upper city was connected to the Temple mount by a bridge, which can
be partly seen today and is know as Wilson's arch. A second entrance bears
the name Robinson's arch that can be viewed near the southern excavations.
There is a third gate known as Barclays gate at the southern side of the
western wall  and is slightly lower then the other two leading to the
Tyropeon Valley, which separates the mount from the lower city

 By far the crowning achievement of Herod was his rebuilding of the Temple
itself in his 18th year of reign (Ant. 15:380), For those of you who wish
to delve deeper into the details of the Temple. There are two main
sources. One is Talmudic literature, particularly the tractates Middot,
Tamid, Yoma, and Shekalim; Second is Josephus' Antiquities (15:380-425 and
his Jewish Wars (5:184-247). Some sources Josephus in particular, claim
that the actual rebuilding of the temple continued to almost the day of
its destruction (Ant. 20:219) 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/arch/atikot1.html

Herod began by leveling the entire area, doubling its size. This was
accomplished by building a supporting wall, which reached the rock
foundations. It is part of this wall, which is known today as the Western
Wall. During Herod's time it was 1,601 feet long, following the Tyropean
Way. The stones many with an indented frame range from a few meters to 12
meter long and weighed as much as 400 tons. On the surface, he created a
huge esplanade or courtyard. On the south side he built the largest and
most famous of the basilica's known as the "Royal Portico."  Which
According to Josephus (Ant. 15:415) it was 185 meters (c. 620 ft.) long.
Rows of seven-meter columns encircled the area. Today, you can see one of
them lying where it cracked near the Russian compound. In the center of
the inner court stood the Sanctuary with a facade of gold and marble,
standing 150 feet high. The inner area was enter by a beautiful gate know
as Nicanor's gate. Nicanor an Alexandrian Jew evidently donated the funds
for it. Although there hasn't been any donators plaques found archeologist
did find a Greek inscription which warns Gentiles that it was forbidden to
pass a certain point. 

The dimensions of the Temple Mount (north, 315 m. (l, 025 ft.); east, 466
m. (l, 520 ft.); south, 281 m. (915 ft.); west, 488 m. (1,590 ft.) added
up to 144,000 sq. m. (c. 169,000 sq. yds)
 
http://www.wzo.org.il/juice/map/jerusalm/2/index.html
The Temple itself was oblong in shape and composed of three sections of
equal width: a porch or hall (ulam), a main room for service which housed
most of the vessels i.e. the Menorah, incense alter etc (hekhal), and the
"Holy of Holies" (devir). Entering these different parts of the Temple
depended on the sanctity of the area; his rank (priest, Levite etc) and of
course, if he was ritually clean. In the most holy section, the Devir,
only the high priest was permitted to enter, and then only once a year, on
the Day of Atonement, for the service.  Even today scholars are divided on
the exact site of the Temple. The main issue is whether the altar, which
stood to the east of the Temple, was built on the Rock.  Which makes sense
according to Samuel II 24:18. Or were the Holy of Holies erected on the
Rock using it as a platform. This point is relevant, since according to
Jewish tradition anyone who trespasses on the holy of Holies even today is
judged to die by the hand of heaven (karet) (Talmud Eduy. 8:6) Maimonides
(Yad, Beit ha-Behirah 6:14-16),


To the north of the temple was the Fortress Baris or Birah, built
originally during Ezra's time. Herod replaced it with the Antonia
Fortress. Named after his friend Mark Antony it was designed to over look
and controls the entire Temple mount. The fortress reached a height of 115
feet and was complete with wells, baths rooms and of course secret
passages. 

 
After Herod's death in 4 CE the kingdom was split between his three
remaining sons.  Archelaus became
the ruler of Jerusalem, but he was incompetent and banished in 6 CE  by
Augustus (successor to Mark Antony). Roman procurators who for the most
part chose Caesarea for their base rather then Jerusalem then ruled
Jerusalem. The city was actually run by the Priests and the Sanhedrin (the
Jewish courts). One of its procurators is, Pontius Pilate (26-36), under
whose rule Jesus was the execution of Jesus of Nazareth took place. In 41
the last " Jewish Prince" Herod Agrippa was appointed by Claudius ruling
only three years. During that time he began to build a new wall on the
northern side (the 3rd wall) but was stopped by the Romans. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/hist/arcs2-7.html
Jerusalem at that time was the spiritual capital of Judaism.  Hillel,
Rabban Gamliel and Rabban Shimon Ben Gamliel all resided there. It is at
this time, just before its destruction that its population was probably
around 120,000.  In the fall of 66 CE the corruption of the Roman
Procurators especially Governor Festus and the numerous slights on the
Jewish religion provoked the local population into a revolt. The Roman
governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, instead of listening to their
complaints, choose to attack the temple, Gallus was defeated and three
years of relative "freedom" ensued. Unfortunately, rather then work
together the Jews fought each other as much as they fought the Romans. The
moderates who favored an agreement with the Romans were forced into
submission. Some like Yohanan ben Zacai succeeded in freeing the city and
plant the roots for the continued survival in Yavneh. In the spring of 70
CE Titus the son of emperor Vespasian attacked with four legions. The
Temple and the Lower City were defended by John of Giscala, the Upper City
by Simeon b. Giora.  Titus had hoped for a quick victory by attacking the
upper city but it was soon apparent that it would be a long and difficult
siege.  Only after bitter resistance were the Romans successful in taking
Antonia Fortress leaving the temple almost defenseless .On the 9th of Av
the temple was destroyed. The upper city succeeded in holding out for a
further 3 weeks but soon it too lay in waste. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/arch/atikot5.html

Jerusalem although its temple was destroyed was not yet vanquished. Jew
continued to live there albeit in poor conditions. According to rabbinic
sources there were as many as seven synagogues functioning at the time.
In 130 Emperor Hadrian visiting the city decided to build a Roman city on
top of the Jewish ruins.  This was one of the contributing factors to the
second revolt. He called his city Aelia Capitolina and had coins stamped
for the occasion. The second revolt was led Simon bar Kosiba who had his
name changed to Simon bar Kokhba -- the son of a star. The Roman garrison
was ejected with the revolt lasted 3 year.  Dio Cassius the 3rd century
Roman historian commented "...Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war.
Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening
phrase commonly affected by emperors: If you and your children are in
health, it is well; I and the legions are in good health." (Roman History
69:12-14)..
  
 With its fall Hadrian declared Jerusalem off limits to Jews on pain of
death. Governor Tineius Rufus plowed under the city. Now the last hope of
an independent Jewish homeland would now be preserved in prayer rather
then in deep for almost 2000 years.

It is now the summer of 135 Jerusalem lay in ruins. Pure desolation,
without the smallest spark of hope. The Romans were determined to
eradicate the very symbol of Jerusalem, so Tinus Rufus, the new governor
of what was left of Judea, commanded that the city and its smoking ruins
be razed. In its place arose a new Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, named for
Hadrian (full name - Alias Hadrianus), and the three main (Capitol) gods
of Rome. The city was to have a forum, baths, and a theater. The Temple
Mount became a temple to the gods with a statue of Hadrian as its center
piece.
An imaginary line was drawn from Beit El in the north to Beit Zur between
Bethlehem and Hebron in the south. No Jew  (actually no circumcised male,
including Jewish Christians) was permitted to cross this border. As harsh
as the decree was, it was relatively short lived. At the beginning of the
3rd century we begin to witness the dissolution of Rome and with it the
decrees. Jews soon made pilgrimages and even began to resettle in small
numbers.
It was the gradual expansion of Christianity and in particular the
ascension of Constantine (324) which helped Jerusalem regain its
centrality and shake off the image of a provincial backwater town. In
actuality it was the visit of Constantine's mother Helena which
precipitated the changes. At her request he built three churches, two in
Jerusalem - the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Eleona on the Mount
of Olives. The third was built in Bethlehem. Unfortunately he also
reinstated the ban on Jews living in Jerusalem, only allowing them to
visit once a year on the 9th of Av, the anniversary of its destruction.
Jerusalem thus became the only city in Eretz- Israel with a Christian
majority.
Soon after, Julian "The Apostate" (361-363) in an attempt to stem the tide
of Christianity, decided to permit Jews to once again enter Jerusalem and
rebuild the Temple, but he died before taking any action. In 395 the Roman
Empire divided into two sections, Eastern and Western. The Eastern Empire
became know as Byzantium, named after an ancient city on the Bosporus. The
Byzantine Empire combined Greek culture, Roman traditions and the absolute
acceptance of Christianity.  
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/cardo/cardo03.html
For the next 200 years Jerusalem flourished under its Byzantine rulers.
The two rulers who contributed the most to this prosperity were John
(396-417) and Justinian (527-565). During John's reign churches were
built, including the Church of Ascension, and Christians were encouraged
to move to the city. At the same time, numerous legislations were passed
which forced the non-Christian community into uncomfortable situations. In
438 Theodosius II extended the ban on holding office to include Samaritans
as well as Jews. In addition he prohibited them from building new places
of worship or repairing existing ones. This increased their frustration.
However, Theodosius' wife Eudocia was instrumental in allowing Jews once
more to live in the city. She also extended the city walls to include Mt.
Zion and the Ophel. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/cardo/cardo02.html 
The famous mosaic Madabeh map found in Transjordan shows Justinian's city
in all its beauty. He built the Cardo thoroughfare, lined with shops,
which transversed the city, as well as the Nea Church. But there was
another, harsher side to his rule. In 529 following more oppressive
legislation aimed at both Jews and Samaritans, the Samaritans revolted and
attacked Jerusalem and the surrounding area. Justinian had no problem in
putting down the revolt.  After his death funds for the Holy Land began to
dry up, causing economic difficulties both for the institutions and the
Christian inhabitants. During those years, especially  during the rule of
Phocas (602-610) and Heraclius (610-641) the Jews were singled out for
forced conversions and persecution. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/cardo/cardo04.html
THE ARAB CONQUEST In 611 the Persians began moving through the eastern
regions. Jerusalem fell to them after a siege of only 20 days. The
Persians were the first foreign invaders since the Romans almost 600 years
earlier. There is some debate as to the  number of Jews who fought on
their side. It matters little whether it was 20,000 or 26,000, what we do
know is that the Jews saw the Persians as their saviors and offered them
any help they could. The Patriarch Zachariah urged the people to surrender
but many decided to fight. This disastrous decision resulted in the razing
of most of the churches. Once again the city was in ruins. The Christian
Patriarch was banished and died in exile. Heraclius retook Jerusalem in
629, but a new power was rising in the east. In 640 Umar the second Caliph
after Mohammed conquered Caesarea and Byzantine rule became another tile
in the mosaic of history.  
For the next 1000 years Jerusalem passed from one invader to another. At
the beginning of the Umayyad rule there was a measure of peace. Seventy
Jewish families were permitted to live in the city, mostly near the Dung
Gate but also in what is known today as the Moslem quarter. Jerusalem's
administrative importance waned as Ramle became the Arab capital, but its
religious role continued to grow. In 691 the Caliph Abd el-Malik built the
Dome of the Rock mosque on the place where according to legend Isaac was
to be  sacrificed by Abraham. His son Walid el Malik built the El Aqsa
mosque nearby in 705.
The relative peace of the Umayyad dynasty continued with the Abbasids, who
moved their capital to Baghdad in 763. Once again, Jerusalem and the
entire Holy Land reverted to a provincial backwater. During the 9th
century power passed to the Seljuk Turks. Heavy taxes were imposed on
Church institutions and Christian pilgrims, yet the spirit of tolerance
remained.
This ended with the coming of the Egyptians in 878 which was followed by
the Fatamid conquest in the latter half of the 10the century. In general
the position of Jews in Jerusalem was one of intense poverty. Although
officially there was still a Yeshiva of Jerusalem headed by the Gaon
Jacob, the real intellectual and spiritual centers had moved elsewhere. 
Persecution of non-Moslems continued to increase. In 1009 El-Haqim ordered
all synagogues and churches destroyed. During the next 60 years there was
a tug-of-war between rival Muslim forces, none of which did Jerusalem any
good. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/hist/arcs2-9.html


THE CRUSADES 1099-1187
The story of the Crusades is one of greed and mistrust sprinkled with a
dose of fanaticism. We will focus on how the Crusades affected Jerusalem
and its inhabitants. On June 7 1099 Godfrey de Bouillon led an army from
Antioch to the outskirts of Jerusalem, near the northeastern wall. Two
other armies led by Robert of Flanders and Robert of Normandy camped near
the Damascus gate. Tancred's forces were at the northwestern corner and
Raymond de St. Gilles at the southwestern sector near Mount Zion. By July
15 despite a strong defense, Jerusalem's walls were breached. Many Moslems
were killed at the outset. The Jews were herded into the local synagogue
which was then set on fire. Godfrey marched his troops around the building
singing "Christ we adore thee" as it burned.
Godfrey was proclaimed ruler and each of the Christian orders were granted
semi-autonomous sections of the city. They rebuilt the walls around the
city, adding a moat in some areas. Streets were repaired and market places
set up. Many of the mosques were turned into churches but the Dome of the
Rock was not touched. New churches were built including the new Church of
the Holy Sepulcher. Jews were eventually allowed back to the edge of city
near the citadel where they made their living dyeing cloth.
Christian rule in Jerusalem did not last long. In July 1187 Saladin (Salah
el Din) defeated the Crusader army at the Horns of Hittim in the Galilee.
By November the city of Jerusalem surrendered but the knights were
permitted to ransom themselves and their possessions. Once again the city
fell into Moslem hands and Christians of European origin were forbidden to
enter. Many churches were once again turned into mosques or schools.
Saladin was generally favorable to the Jews and in 1190 encouraged them to
resettle in the city. 
In 1229 after the Third Crusade failed to retake Jerusalem, an agreement
was reached between Frederick II, the holy Roman emperor and al Malik al
Kamil of Egypt. Under the terms of the treaty the Moslems would retain the
Temple Mount and the Christians would rule the rest of the city. Finally
in 1244 the Khwarizm Turks attacked the city, killing most of its
Christian inhabitants and despoiling the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Many Jews succeeded in escaping but others  were killed in the attack.
Nachmonides writing in 1267 reported finding only 2 Jewish families.
The last years of the Crusades and their aftermath were anything but
peaceful. Intrigues pitted Christians against Moslems, Genovese merchants
against Venetians, Mamelukes against Ayyubids, Mamelukes against Mongols,
leaving the stage clear for the next arrivals, the Mamelukes.
MAMELUKES
The word "mamluk" actually means slave. They were probably originally
Turkish or Circassian prisoners who were sold to Egypt as slaves. They
were trained as soldiers and attained high positions within Egypt. In 1250
after the murder of the Ayyubid prince Turan Shah they seized the reigns
of power. Ten years later they conquered Greater Syria. For the first time
the entire region was controlled by one ruler - in Cairo. Jerusalem during
this time was not politically significant. It was less important than
Safed which was one of the seven districts of greater Syria. It was one of
many subdistricts and the governor was of little rank - an "emir of forty"
(amir tabalkhana). There were no direct roads or communication links
between the city and Cairo, further emphasizing its unimportance.  
It was a common phenomenon for out of favor emirs to be banished to
"Siberia" for a while. During their banishment they usually undertook some
building project to preserve their names for posterity. Three preserved
schools of learning (madrasa) were built during this time. Despite this
political relegation, Jerusalem's position vis-a- vis Moslem religious
prestige was enhanced. Baibar (1260-1277) renovated the Dome of the Rock
and the nearby mihrab of the Dome of the Chain. His followers made many
renovations, adding beautifully constructed colonnades and buildings and
covering the Dome of the Rock with gold.
 The Mamelukes ruled for 267 years and although many of them were
illiterate, some including Baibar were known as patrons of the arts and of
learning. During their rule the Jewish inhabitants suffered grave economic
difficulties, yet in spite of it all in 1267 the leading scholar of his
generation Nachmonidies (the Ramban) moved to Jerusalem at the age of 73,
to open a school for higher learning and a synagogue. He also persuaded
Jews who had fled to return. For the next 200 years the Jewish population
comprised approximately 150 families. A large number came from Spain in
1391 at the beginning of the Inquisition and an even greater number
arrived after the expulsion of Jews in 1492. Most Jews eked out a living
as artisans. Conditions were abhorrent, and extortion was common. In 1428
the Pope asked Italian ships to stop taking aboard Jews bound for the
Holyland, and in 1440 a steep annual levy was imposed. As if this wasn't
enough, natural calamities such as the Black Plague, locusts, earthquakes
and in 1473 heavy rains which destroyed over 300 houses, all pushed the
city into ever more abject misery. Despite these disasters the Jewish
population actually grew. Obadiah d'Bertinoro who moved to Jerusalem in
1488 found some 200 Jewish families living there. 

OTTOMAN RULE 1517-1917
On December 30 1516 the Turkish Sultan Selim I entered Jerusalem fresh
from his victory over the Mameluke ruler Qansuh el-Ghori, and was received
with open arms. It was his successor Suleiman the Great (1520-1566) who
decided to make his mark by refortifying the city. He repaired (1532) the
aqueduct from Solomon's Pools to Jerusalem thus bringing in a steady
supply of fresh water. He rebuilt many of the original gates but sealed up
the golden gate leading to the Temple Mount (1541) in order to prevent the
arrival of the Messiah, who according to tradition will pass through this
gate (Shaar Harahamim) to enter the Holy City. 
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/hist/fhist4.html
  Unfortunately this was all that was to happen to Jerusalem for the next
few hundred years. Jerusalem was all but forgotten by the Turkish Empire.
>From time to time Jews and sometimes Christians endured persecution in one
form or another, usually having to pay heavy bribes to get back what they
had owned in the first place.  The 17th century saw a gradual increase in
the Jewish population. According to Moshe Poryat of Prague (1650) there
were approximately 300 Jewish families in the city. Among the new arrivals
was Bezalel Ashkenazi (d.1592), a Rabbinical leader who helped the
community become better organized.  Others came from North Africa, Turkey
and Western Europe. Some of the more famous were Isaiah Horovitz, author
of Shnei Luchot Habrit as well as a prayer book, and Yaakov Hagiz, a North
African scholar (1658), who established the Yeshiva Beit Yaakov. The most
renowned was no doubt Rabbi Judah the Pious who brought a group of about
1000 people to the land, many of them moving on to Jerusalem. He died
shortly after his arrival but succeeded in purchasing a plot of land on
which the Hurva Synagogue was built. During the 18th century, despite
poverty and tribulations, 19 yeshivot were founded in Jerusalem. One of
the more prominent personalities to settle during these years was Rabbi
Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk, who in 1771 brought 300 Hasidim to Eretz
Israel and thus became the de facto leader of the Hasidic community.
http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/state/jermodel.html
The next century saw a gradual change and some even consider this as a
separate period in Jerusalem's development. This was largely due to a
temporary takeover (1831) of Jerusalem by the son of Mohammed Ali Pasha of
Egypt, Ibrahim which lasted for 10 years. Eventually the European powers
forced him out, securing for themselves an increased position and interest
in the affairs of Jerusalem. During this decade Ibrahim Pasha allowed the
Jewish community to repair 4 synagogues. The short lived "revolt" of
Mohammed Ali shocked the Turks into making a serious effort to improve
their administration. A secondary outcome was a gradual increase in the
importance of Jerusalem both within the Ottoman Empire and the world in
general. Consulate after consulate opened in Jerusalem, followed by banks
and the postal services of various European countries. The Rothschild
Hospital was opened in 1854 as well as a school for boys. According to the
British Council, by 1865 there were 18,000 people in the Old city, half of
them Jews.
The biggest change took place in a plot of land outside the city walls,
with the backing of Moses Montifiore and Judah Touro.This small plot
(mishkenot shaananim AKA Maskeret Moshe, Yemin Moshe 1860) with its
windmill ( which never really worked) became the symbol of new life in
Jerusalem outside the city walls. It was not easy to persuade people to
move out of the protective walled city but gradually the overcrowded
unsanitary conditions began to outweigh the possible "danger" from Bedouin
(nomadic arab tribes which often raided caravans). A plague in 1864 caused
by contaminated water gave a further impetus to leaving the walled city.
As each new section outside the walls of the city was successfully built
and populated (Nahlat Shiva 1869, Mea Shearim 1873) the movement gathered
steam. By 1874 the American Consul De Haas reported a population in
Jerusalem of 30,000 people, two/thirds of whom were Jewish. 
http://www.wzo.org.il/juice/map/jerusalm/3/index.htm
The visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1898 was significant, since it
underscored Jerusalem's claim to importance. During his visit the Kaiser
met with Theodore Herzl, the father of modern Zionism. The wall near Jaffa
Gate was demolished and the moat partially filled in preparation for the
Kaiser's visit. 
In the years before WWI Jerusalem began to adopt a more Western tone.
Although thousands of Jews still  lived in the Old City, it began to take
a back seat to the Western half of the city outside the walls. Its streets
were populated by those who for spiritual or financial reasons wished to
remain within the walls. New schools (Alliance Israelite Universelle 1882,
Bezalel 1906) and hospitals (Augusta Victoria 1910; Italian Hospital 1913)
were built on the Western side, together with roads linking the northern
route to Nablus and the western route to Lod. By 1912 there were over
70,000 people in Jerusalem - 45,000 Jews, 15,000 Christians, and 10,000
Moslems. Turkish rule in Jerusalem ended on December 11 1917, when General
Allenby, Commander of the British Forces, entered the old city. 
British Rule 1917-1948
The 30 years of British rule had no real impact within the walls of the
Old city. Its seat as the Mandatory Capital and the site of the Zionist
Organization ensured that it remained a vortex of historical and political
importance. The population doubled to 165,000 in 1946 with 102,000 Jews. 
The greatest changes were again in the building of new neighborhoods,
general facilities and the Hebrew University on Mount Scopus in 1925. Yet
peace within the city was not attainable. In 1920, 1922, 1929 and 1936-39,
Arabs rioted under the leadership of Haj Amin el Husseini, the grand
Mufti, who later collaborated with Adolf Hitler. The rioters rampaged
through both the Old and New city, looting and killing. During the war
years the British under pressure and threat for the White Paper of 1939
banning Jewish immigration used curfews, arrests and security zones in an
effort to control the city. At last, unable to keep up the facade of rule
any longer and under pressure to return home, the British Mandate ended.
On November 29, 1947 the U.N. voted for partition to end foreign rule. 
The story of Jerusalem now begins anew....

Eli Birnbaum
Bibliography:
James Parkes;  History of Palestine: London 1949
James Parkes;  The story of Jerusalem 1949
John Gery; History of Jerusalem
Michael Avi Yona; Jerusalem the Saga of the Holy land Jerusalem 1956
Zev Vilnai; Yerusahlayim ( heb) 1970
Eliyahu Tal; Whose Jerusalem 1994
Mordechai Naor; Harovah Hayehudi B'Ir Atikah  Mosad Bialik 1987
"Hair Haelyonah shel Yerusahlayim" N. Avigad, Shekmonah Jerusalem 1980
"The Jerusalem Cathedra," Lee I. Levine, ed. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Institute,
Jerusalem.  1981
"The Atlas of Jewish History," Martin Gilbert.  Dorsett Press. 1976
"The Herodian Quarter in Jerusalem," N. Avigad.  Keter Publishing,
Jerusalem.  1983
Yerushalyim ( heb)  M. Avi Yona,  Israel Publishing Institute 1960